InspectAPedia ^®

Electrical Definitions: Amps, Volts, Watts, Ground ElectricAPedia ©

• Electrical system definitions and examples of electrical amps, definition of volts, & definition of watts
• Definition of electrical resistance, definition of electrical potential
• How does a building get 240Volt or 120Volt electricity?
• How many watts can a home electrical circuit safely provide?
• How to determine the size, capacity, or ampacity of electrical service at a building

This article provides electrical definitions: definition of amps, definition of volts, definition of watts as part of our complete text which explains how to estimate the electrical service size, (or "electrical power" or "service amps") at a building by visual examination of the service entry cables, electric meter and meter base, electrical service panel, main switch, and other details. Readers should also see Electrical Circuits, shorts, AC/DC.

Photographs and sketches illustrate voltage, electrical resistance, and other electrical wiring concepts. © Copyright 2009 Daniel Friedman, All Rights Reserved. Information Accuracy & Bias Pledge is at below-left. Use links at the left of each page to navigate this document or to view other topics at this website. Green links show where you are in our document or website.

How do we DEFINE Electrical AMPS, VOLTS, & WATTS - Definitions of Volts, Amps and Phase - clearing up some confusion about electrical terms

In most places in the world, electrical service brought to a building is at either of two voltage levels: 240V or 120V. These numbers are "nominal," meaning that the actual voltage may be vary. Most modern buildings receive 240V service, a total achieved by the provision of two individual 120V incoming power lines as we discuss below.

Older buildings and electrical services often delivered only 120V. Knowing which voltage level is available is important, but knowing the voltage alone does not indicate the amount of electrical power available inside a building. For that we need to know both the service voltage at a building, and the service amperage (typically 100A or larger, but historically, 30A, 60A, 100A, 125A, and more recently 150A, or 200A depending on the power requirements at a building). Don't confuse service VOLTS (120/240 V) with service AMPS or WATTS - those terms are discussed next.

What is the definition of Amps or Amperage?

Amperage or Amps provided by an electrical service is the flow rate of "electrical current" that is available. Mathematically, Amps = Watts / Volts. (Amps = Watts divided by Volts) Speaking practically, the voltage level provided by an electrical service, combined with the ampacity rating of the service panel determine how much electrical demand, or in another sense how many electrical devices can be run at one time in the building. Sketch courtesy of Carson Dunlop. Branch circuit wire sizes and fusing or circuit breakers used set the limit on the total electrical load or the number of electrical devices that can be run at once on a given circuit. If you have a 100 Amp current flow rate available, you could, speaking very roughly, run ten 10 amp electric heaters simultaneously. If you have only 60A available, you won't be able to run more than 6 such heaters without risk of overheating wiring, causing a fire, tripping a circuit breaker or blowing a fuse.

Ampacity, in the electrical code, refers to the current, measured in amperes, that a conductor (a wire) can carry continuously under the conditions of use without exceeding its temperature rating - in other words, the ampacity of a #14 gauge copper wire intended for residential electrical wiring is 15 Amps because that's the amount of current that the wire can carry without getting too hot. "Too hot" means a temperature that could damage the wire insulation and thus reduce its safety.

What is the definition of Volts or Voltage?

Volt, formally, is defined as the potential difference across a conductor when a current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power. This definition is not very helpful to consumers. Using a water-in-pipes analogy, volts is analogous to water "pressure" in the electrical system. Having higher "pressure" in a pipe (or electrical conductor) means that conductor is capable of delivering more energy to the user. Later in this article we further explain electrical potential. Mathematically Volts = Watts / Amps. (Volts equals Watts divided by Amps).

Just as a 10 gpm flow rate of water through a pipe provides half the amount of water as a 20 gpm flow rate, 10 amps of current in a conductor provides half the energy as 20 amps of current. Amps,as we discussed above, is a measure total current flow (or "gallons per minute" or "gpm" using the popular water analogy) available from an electrical service. A ten-amp 240V electrical service is capable of delivering, speaking roughly, twice the energy to the end-user than a ten-amp 120V electrical service. So volts is a measure of the strength of an electrical source at a given current or amperage level. If we bring 100A into a building at 240V, we have twice as much power available as if we bring in 100A at 120V. Volts (continuing the same water analogy) is the "pressure" in an individual electrical conductor. Some people explain volts as similar to water pressure in a pipe, and amps as water current or total quantity flow. We discuss volts and amps below and in detail at this website. Sketch courtesy of Carson Dunlop. The total current ("gpm") that will flow through a conductor is doubled if the pressure is doubled. Twice the power or energy can be delivered on a # 12 conductor by doubling the voltage and holding the current to 20 amps. Doubling voltage and also doubling the amperage will deliver four times the power or energy. Why we need circuit breakers or fuses: In either case, if we exceed the current rating of an electrical wire, it will get hot, risking a fire. That's why we use fuse devices (or modern circuit breakers), to limit the current flow on electrical conductors to a safe level to avoid overheating and fires. - thanks to Lousi Babin for technical review and edits to this text.

Is "240V" really exactly 240 Volts?: Don't expect a "240V" circuit to provide that exact voltage level. We've already said that "120V" and "240V" are "nominal" ratings, meaning that the actual numbers may vary. In a three phase circuit, even if you are using only two phases, the voltage between the phases is 1.732 x 120 = 207.6, or approximately 207 Volts and not 240 Volts. In various countries the actual voltage level varies around the nominal delivered "voltage rating" and in fact depending on the quality of electrical power delivered on a particular service, voltage will also vary continuously around its actual rating.

Most (but not all) modern electrical equipment can handle small voltage variations and differences without a problem. Sensitive electronic equipment may require that a voltage stabilizer be installed. For example a "240V" appliance can usually handle "208V" just fine.

The technical detail of how "240V" (or 207V if you prefer) is actually delivered to a building may be a bit confusing, so let's follow this carefully. In fact 240V delivered to a building does not mean that the individual service drop wires are carrying that voltage. Rather, 240V in the building is obtained as follows: the two "hot legs" are on different electrical phases provided by a step-down transformer at a neighborhood utility pole or box. Each service conductor on its own phase delivers 120V to the building.

The two (in this case) phases are arranged so that connecting a circuit across the two "hot legs" produces "240V" in for that circuit. An electrician or engineer, trained in safe volt-ohm meter (VOM) or digital multimeter (DMM) use can easily demonstrate this fact. Connecting a voltmeter from either incoming service conductor to ground will display 120V, and connecting a voltmeter across the two incoming 120V service conductors will display approximately 208V or 240V depending on just how the supplying transformer is designed.

Technical detail about phases of electrical power: Three phase power with the star (Y-connected) connected secondary and the neutral grounded, you get 208 Volts line-to-line, and 120 Volts line-to-neutral. With a single phase transformer (240 V secondary with a center tap and the center trap grounded), you get 120 Volts line-to-ground (neutral) and 240 Volts phase-to-phase (line-to-line). -- Thanks to N. Srinivasan for these clarifications.

What is the definition of Electrical Watts or Wattage?

Watts is a measure of the amount of electricity being used - a rate of electrical power consumption. Most people use a very simple mathematical formula to determine how many watts an electrical circuit can carry or how many watts an electrical device will require: Watts = Volts x Amps.

This formula shows how Watts relates to Volts and Amps. You can rearrange this equation using simple algebra or you can re-write it using Ohm's law. (Ohms is a measure of electrical resistance, which also measures the heat that will be generated in a wire carrying a given current.)

Amps = Volts / Ohms.

Given those two equations just cited, we can also write:

Watts = Volts x (Volts / Ohms), which lets us also write Watts as

Watts = Volts ² / Ohms.

How does a building receive 240V and 120V electrical power?

As our sketch, courtesy of Carson Dunlop, shows, 240V power delivered to a building in the U.S., Canada, and Mexico, and some other locations, means that the building is receiving two 120V lines which provide 240V for circuits connected across these two incoming wires, and which provides 120V for circuits connected from either of the individual incoming lines to ground. For heavier and commercial electrical power requirements, three and even four-phase electrical service may be delivered to a building, and in some applications, electrical equipment is designed to be fed directly by multiple phases. You will not ordinarily see such service at a residential property, but one of the authors (DF) has encountered it in cases where there was a dental office in the basement of a home. The dentist's x-ray equipment required three-phase power. The tip off was the observation outside of four rather than three service conductors at the masthead, and in the main panel, the main switch was fed by three incoming service conductors rather than the usual two. (Douglas Hansen's various publications on electricity and electrical inspections and his upcoming book point out variations of these formulae which are useful in discussing the heating of wires carrying current.)

Electrical Definitions of Wires & Components Used to Bring Electricity to a Building

We list these common electrical terms roughly in the order that they are observed, from the electrical utility company's overhead wires and pole to the building receiving electrical power to its electrical panel, and in the panel to individual circuit breakers which provide power to and protect individual electrical circuits that distribute electrical power throughout a building.

Service Drop: the overhead electrical service conductors from the last electric utility pole (or other aerial support) to and including splices if any, connecting to the service entrance conductors at the building. These wires usually belong to and are the responsibility of the electric utility company.

Service-Entrance Conductors, overhead system: the service conductors (wires) between the terminals of the service equipment (main electrical panel) and a point usually outside of the building, clear of building walls (usually the electrical masthead, visible in this sketch), where the wires are joined by tap or splice to the service drop (the wires from the utility company). These are the electrical wires coming down the building exterior from a mast-head connection point to the electrical meter, and continuing inside to the main electrical panel or service switch. These wires normally belong to and are the responsibility of the building owner.

Service Conductors: wires connecting service point (such as the outside electric meter) to the main service disconnect (such as the main breaker in the main electrical panel). These are wires bringing electrical power from the electric meter into the electrical panel.

Service Equipment: usually the circuit breaker(s) or switches and fuses used to connect to the load end of service conductors coming to the building. This is the main electrical switch, fuse, or breaker, usually in the main electrical panel but sometimes installed as a physically separate switch before the main electrical panel.

Circuit Breaker: a device designed to open and close (turn off or on) an electrical circuit by non-automatic means (a physical toggle switch) and to open the circuit automatically (internal trip mechanism) on a predetermined overcurrent without damage to itself when properly applied within its rating. (That is, a 15A circuit breaker is expected to protect a 15A circuit, not something else).

Branch circuit: is the conductors (electrical wires, hot, neutral, ground) between the final overcurrent device protecting the circuit (a circuit breaker or fuse in the electrical panel) and the outlet(s). A general purpose branch circuit is an electrical circuit that supplies two or more receptacles or outlets for lighting and appliances. In other words, the wires that bring power from the electrical panel to one or more points in the building where it will be used to power an light, power something plugged into an electrical outlet, or to an individual appliance.

What is the definition of Alternating Current or AC

Alternating current is almost universally used for home electric power and is, therefore, the kind this article is primarily concerned with. In an AC circuit, the amount of voltage applied to the circuit is constantly changing from zero to a maximum and back to zero in one direction and then from zero to maximum and back to zero in the other direction. The maximum voltage is set by the generating plant.

Because voltage is the pressure that causes current to flow, the current will also change from zero to maximum to zero and will reverse direction and repeat. The maximum amount of current, however, is determined by the load resistance and can vary as the load resistance varies. Each complete change from zero to maximum to zero in one direction and then zero to maximum to zero in the opposite direction is called one hertz (formerly cycle).

The term hertz implies "per second." So, 60 hertz means the same as 60 cycles per second. Hertz is abbreviated Hz. Cycles-per-second, which you will still see marked in some electrical devices, is abbreviated cps.

What is the Definition of Direct Current or DC

Direct current is most commonly found in homes in the form of electrical energy stored in batteries. In a DC circuit, the amount of voltage and the direction of application are constant. The amount of voltage is determined by the type and size of battery. The direction of current flow is also constant and, as in AC circuits, the amount of current flow is determined by the load resistance.

Batteries convert chemical energy to electrical energy. The chemical energy can be in wet form, as in your car battery, or in dry form as in flashlight and transistor-radio batteries. Some batteries are designed to be recharged from an AC source. The voltage from all batteries, unless recharged, will gradually decrease. AC power can be converted to DC power for some uses in the home. The conversion is performed by a device called a rectifier or current converter.

How many Watts can a typical household electrical circuit provide?

15-Amp 120V electrical circuits: typical U.S. 120V household electrical circuit uses #14 gauge copper wire and is protected (and thus limited) by a 15-amp circuit breaker. Such a circuit can deliver about 350 watts of electrical power to devices plugged into it, and another roughly 10 watts is consumed by the resistance of the circuit and its devices (receptacles and switches).

20-Amp 120V electrical circuits: typical U.S. 120V 20A household circuits use #12 gauge copper wire and are protected and thus limited by a 20-Amp fuse or circuit-breaker. A 20-amp circuit can provide about 2400 Watts. But as some writers have pointed out, for safety, household circuits are intended to carry less current (about 20% less) than their theoretical maximum. 80% of 2400 Watts is 1920 watts - that's about what you should expect to obtain from such a circuit.

How are we figuring these numbers? we use the formula from above, Watts = Volts x Amps and we plug in the nominal voltage and a guess at the resistance over the electrical circuit before we've plugged in anything:

W = 120V x 15 Amps so W = 1800 for our 15-Amp electrical circuit.

W = 120V x 20 Amps so W = 2400 for our 20-Amp circuit.

Example:

If we have a 1500 Watt electric heater running on "high" and thus drawing a maximum of 1500 Watts, plugged into our 20-Amp circuit above, we've got another 420 Watts available on that circuit. So we could run maybe another four 100-watt lights on the same circuit.

The real world is a little more complex; lots of devices draw more current when they're starting-up, especially air conditioners and refrigerators. The electrical engineer (during design) or electrician (during house wiring) choose a circuit breaker that can tolerate that temporary high current but that will trip off if high current continues to flow on the wire.

What is the definition of Electrical Potential?

What is the definition of Electrical Resistance & what is Ohm's Law?

What is an electrical circuit?

Electrical circuits, alternating current (AC), direct current (DC), short circuits, and other basics of electrical wiring are defined further in our series of articles on electricity for homeowners starting at Electrical Circuits, shorts.

What are the Definitions of Electrical Ground, Grounding Electrode, Grounding Conductor, Grounded Conductor, Ground Wire, Neutral Wire, Ground Rod?

How & Why It is Important to Assure Safe Electrical Grounding at a Property

Home inspector Arlene Puentes summarizes distinctions important in understanding the function of electrical grounding at a building:

1. Grounding to trip the circuit breaker or blow the fuse: Electrical grounding is necessary to protect people from electric shock by providing a good electrical path to route a faulty electrical connection (such as a short circuit) to ground (literally, to the earth) so that current will flow through and thus trip the circuit breaker or blow the fuse, safely and quickly turning off the electrical circuit. (A short circuit is one of the two ways that a fuse or circuit breaker will blow. The second is the drawing of more current (amps) than the circuit is intended to carry.)
2. Grounding to route stray electricity from static electricity, electrical power surges, lightening, etc. to ground. This can protect the insulation on electrical wires from damage due to high voltage. The protection against static electricity helps reduce the chances of an un-wanted spark that can cause damage to electronic components or cause an explosion of nearby combustible gases.
3. Grounding to provide a normal path for electricity to flow: energy flows in an building's electrical circuit from a power source (the utility pole through electrical panel, though building circuits and electrical devices connected to them) to the ground, to earth. If there is no good connection to earth, electricity does not flow, though it might if you stand on wet ground and touch a live electrical wire - an action that could be fatal. Ground and neutral are related electrical terms. Neutral is used to describe the "return path" from in an electrical circuit to the electrical panel. Inside of the main electrical panel the neutral wires are bonded to the ground wires and to a grounding conductor that connects that assembly to earth (typically through a grounding electrode or "ground rod")

Electrical Grounding Terms & Definitions

Here are some elementary electrical ground, grounding, and ground wire definitions to help us get our terms straight when discussing electrical grounds, grounding, and ground bonds

Ground: means the physical earth, the soil or ground. In some countries the term earth is used and is synonymous with ground. In the electrical code, ground means an electrically conducting connection, intentional or accidental, between an electrical circuit and the earth. Grounded means that something has been electrically connected to the earth. Watch out: even among inspectors and electricians, people may use the term "ground" more loosely to refer to the equipment grounding conductor or other components.

Grounding electrode or ground electrode: a metal conductor, usually a solid copper-alloy rod of specified length, driven into the ground in order to provide a point for electrical connection between the building grounding system and ground or earth. In the electrical code, the grounding electrode conductor is the conductor (a wire) used to connect the grounding rod(s) to the equipment grounding conductor (the ground bus and ground wires in the electrical panel) OR to the grounded conductor (the neutral bus and neutral wires) OR to connect both of these to the grounding electrode (which is usually the case in residential electrical systems).

Grounded Conductor (the neutral wire): by convention the grounded conductor or neutral wire is white or gray. In an electrical circuit the grounded conductor (white or neutral wire) normally carries electrical current between the un-grounded (hot) electrical wire and (back through the main electrical panel and grounding system) earth. In the electrical code, a grounded conductor is one which has been intentionally grounded - connected to the earth.

The amount of current carried by the neutral wire is called the un-balanced load and depends on the characteristics of the electrical device being operated by the circuit. The neutral conductor is grounded in the main electrical panel. Be careful, inspectors and electricians, speaking loosely, may simply call this the "neutral wire".

Equipment Grounding Conductor (the ground wire): By convention the equipment grounding conductor (ground wire) is bare copper or carries green insulation. the individual wire in a (grounded) electrical circuit that is connected through the ground bus in the electrical panels and ultimately in the main electrical panel is connected to ground or earth. In the electrical code, a grounding conductor is a conductor (metal wire, metal bar, etc) which is used to connect electrical equipment (like an electrical panel enclosure) or the grounded circuit (the neutral wires) of a wiring system to a grounding electrode (and thus to earth).

The ground wire in an electrical circuit does not normally carry any electrical current, but it remains available as an emergency path to allow current to flow to earth should an electrical fault such as a short circuit occur (a connection between a hot wire and some metal (conductive) material that could cause an electrical shock to someone), thus assuring that a fuse or circuit breaker in the main panel can sense the current flow and switch off the circuit. In an older two-wire armored cable (BX) electrical circuit, the metallic cable of the circuit may be serving as the only grounding conductor.

It helps to keep these terms straight if we remember that we use the ing form of the word grounding to mean that this conductor causes an electrical connection between earth and whatever the grounding conductor is connected to.

Electrical Bonding Definitions (consistent with NEC article 100)

Bonding or Bonded: means that metallic parts are permanently joined so as to assure that they form a reliably continuous electrical path and that the parts are capable of conducting any electrical current that may be imposed on them. A bonding jumper is a reliable electrical conductor used to connect metal parts together and a main bonding jumper is the connection between the grounded circuit conductor and the equipment grounding conductor at the electrical service (panel).

Ground bond: refers to a physical electrical connection between any metal component (like metal water pipes, metal gas piping, a metal electrical panel enclosure, or a neutral or ground bus in the main electrical panel) and the building electrical ground system.

In the main electrical panel the neutral wires are physically bonded to the ground wires (by a larger diameter wire or by a metal bar inside the panel) and the ground wire bus (a metal bar) is further connected to a grounding conductor that connects those components to the building ground system: one or more grounding electrodes and possibly a connection to an incoming metal water pipe that is buried outside. An electrician would say that the building's ground and neutral wires are bonded to earth

Bonding electrical components together makes certain that all of the joined items are at the same electrical potential (that is, that current will not flow from one to the other). Examples of electrical bonds in buildings include:

• In electrical panels or sub panels the neutral wires are all bonded together on a neutral bus or bar.
• In individual electrical panels or sub-panels the ground wires are all bonded together on a ground bus or bar.
• In the main electrical panel at a building, the neutral bus and ground bus and electrical panel itself are all bonded together and are connected to the building grounding system. In a sub panel the neutral bus and ground bus are not bonded together and must be kept separate.

...

Technical Reviewers & References

Search InspectAPedia

• Daniel Friedman - principal author/editor of the InspectAPedia^® Website
• InspectAPedia Bookstore lists recommended books, organized by topic & available for purchase. Most of our articles also include a list of recommended books for the specific article topic as well as other references, and information sources.
• Critique, contributions wanted: Contact Us to suggest corrections or additions to articles at this website, and if you wish, to receive online listing and credit as a contributor. Particular thanks are due to the many experts and also consumers who read and critique technical articles at InspectAPedia.com.
• Additional technical contributors & reference sources for this article are listed below.

Use links just below or at the left of each page to navigate this document or to view other topics at this website. Green links show where you are in our document or website.

• Original Authors: Al Carson, Daniel Friedman, Robert Klewitz.
  Alan Carson is an ASHI Member, national home inspection educator, author and building failures researcher in Toronto, Ontario.
  Daniel Friedman, an original author of this article and the editor and producer of InspectAPedia where this article now appears is an ASHI Member, first ASHI Technical Committee chairman, editor and publisher of the ASHI Technical Journal, licensed home inspector, educator, and building failures researcher in Poughkeepsie, NY. Robert Klewitz is a licensed professional engineer, a professional home inspector, an ASHI Member, and has served on the ASHI Technical Committee as well as in other ASHI activities. His practice is in Issaquah, WA.
• Douglas Hansen, Robert Stead. Mark Cramer - technical review.
• Photographs: Daniel Friedman.
• Arlene Puentes, an ASHI home inspector in Kingston, NY, suggested text on the importance of safe electrical grounding. Ms. Puentes has served as Hudson Valley ASHI (American Society of Home Inspectors) chapter president, and is active in professional education in the home inspection field. She can be contacted at ap@octoberhome.com
• N. Srinivasan, MSEE, is a senior member of IEEE with 30 years experience in the electrical industry. Mr. Srinivasan is in Vienna VA.
• Louis P. Babin generously contributed technical editing about the effects of doubling ampacity in an electrical circuit (September 2007)
• Critique, contributions wanted: Contact Us to suggest text changes and additions and, if you wish, to receive online listing and credit for that contribution.

Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair

• Our recommended books about building design, inspection, and repair, and about indoor environment testing, diagnosis, and cleanup are at the InspectAPedia Bookstore.
• ...

More Information on Building Diagnostic Inspections and Repairs

• * Safety Hazards and Safe Inspection Procedures for Electrical and Home Inspectors at Residential Electric Panels
• Aluminum Wiring Information Website Aluminum Electrical Wiring Hazards and Repairs: in-depth authoritative info, photos, documents including selection of proper vs. ineffective repair methods. E.g.: Ideal 65 "Twister" purple connector fails in field and lab testing with aluminum wire.
• Ampacity of an Electrical Service: How to Estimate the electrical service size or ampacity entering a building
• Circuit Breaker, a bad one fails to trip failure at aluminum bus-to-circuit breaker connection - field report and photographs
• Electrical Panels, How to Inspect in Buildings, safety for electrical inspectors, electrical panel, fusing, wiring defects, defective products. Inspection Class Presentation
• Federal Pacific Electric (FPE) Stab-Lok Circuit Breaker Panel Hazards Website - Latent fire hazards, in-depth authoritative research, documents, advice on Stab-Lok electric panel and circuit breaker failures and what to do when this equipment is found in buildings.
• Lightning Strike Risk Assessment, Protection Systems & Services
• Multi-wire branch circuit inspection and defects
• "Electrical System Inspection Basics," Richard C. Wolcott, ASHI 8th Annual Education Conference, Boston 1985.
• "Simplified Electrical Wiring," Sears, Roebuck and Co., 15705 (F5428) Rev. 4-77 1977 [Lots of sketches of older-type service panels.]
• "How to plan and install electric wiring for homes, farms, garages, shops," Montgomery Ward Co., 83-850.
• Rust and Corrosion in Electrical Panels, A Study and Report on Frequency and Cause for Electrical and Home Inspectors at Residential Electric Panels


• Electrical System & Wiring Hazard Inspection, Detection, Cause, Remedy, Prevention - Main Electrical Page
• Directory of Home Inspectors accessible via internet

InspectAPedia® Home & Site Map - Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, Repair, & Problem Prevention Advice: In-depth research & advice on diagnosing, testing, correcting, & preventing building defects & indoor environmental hazards. Unbiased information, no conflicts of interest.

The Mold Information Center: What to Do About Mold in Buildings, When and How to Inspect for Mold, Clean Up Mold, or Avoid Mold Problems

Use this simple, economical mold test kit by following our instructions on how to collect and mail mold samples to our lab

Environmental Inspection, Testing, & Diagnosis On-Site IAQ, Gas, Air Testing, Mold Investigation, Sick Building Diagnosis, Lab Services, & Remediation Plan Preparation - indoor air quality testing, problem source determination, supporting lab work, written remediation plan addressing removal of environmental and other hazards and prevention of their recurrence.

Building Inspection, Problem Diagnosis, Forensic Investigation & Testing, Repair Consulting

Contact Daniel Friedman for website content suggestions or for fee-paid consulting