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FOUNDATION DIAGNOSIS
EARTHQUAKE DAMAGED FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION TYPES
FOUNDATION INSPECTION METHODS
FAILURES by FOUNDATION TYPE & MATERIAL
  Block Foundation & Wall Defects
  Brick Foundation & Wall Defects
  Brick Thermal Expansion Cracking
  Concrete Poured Foundation Wall & Slab Defects
  Concrete Pre-cast Foundation Defects
  Stone Foundation Defects
  Wood Foundation Defects
FAILURES by FOUNDATION MOVEMENT TYPE
  BULGED vs. LEANING FOUNDATIONS
  COMBINATIONS OF FOUNDATION MOVEMENT
    Bulge & step cracks
    Earthquake Damage to Foundations
    Flood Damage to Foundations
    Foundation Movement During Collapse
    Other Foundation Step cracks
  HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT IN FOUNDATIONS
    Bulging, Leaning & Sliding Wall
    Horizontal Foundation Creep
    Horizontal Movement & step cracks in brick
    Impact Damage to Foundations
    Thermal Expansion Cracking in Brick
  VERTICAL MOVEMENT IN FOUNDATIONS
    Diagonal Cracks in Concrete Foundations
    Diagonal Step Cracking in Masonry
    Differential vs. Uniform Settlement Cracks
    Leaning or Tipping Buildings
    Uniform Width vs. Tapered Foundation Cracks
    Vertical Cracks
FLOOD DAMAGE TO FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATION DEFECTS OF OMISSION
FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION
  DIAGONAL FOUNDATION CRACKS
  HORIZONTAL FOUNDATION CRACKS
  SHRINKAGE vs EXPANSION vs SETTLEMENT
  Sinkholes & Building Damage
  VERTICAL FOUNDATION CRACKS
FOUNDATION BULGE or LEAN MEASUREMENTS
FOUNDATION DAMAGE SEVERITY
FOUNDATION DAMAGE REPORTS
FOUNDATION INSPECTION STANDARDS
FOUNDATION MOVEMENT ACTIVE vs. STATIC
FOUNDATION REPAIR METHODS
  Bulged foundation Repairs
  Crack Repair Methods
  Horizontal Movement Repairs
  Shrinkage Crack Repairs
  Vertical Movement Repairs
SITE FACTORS AFFECTING FOUNDATIONS
SLAB CRACK EVALUATION
  Control Joint Cracks in Concrete
  Freezing & Water Damage
  Frost Heave/Expansive Soil Cracks in Slabs
  Seal Cracks by Polyurethane Foam Injection
  Seal Cracks in Concrete, How To
  Settlement Cracks in Slabs
  Settlement Cracks vs. Frost Heaves
  Settlement Cracks vs. Shrinkage Cracks
  Shrinkage Cracks in Slabs
  Shrinkage Cracks Along Foundation Walls
  Standards for Repair of Cracks in Floors
WATER ENTRY in BUILDINGS
  SUMP PUMPS GUIDE
ADDITIONAL READING

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How to Recognize & Diagnose Stone Foundation Cracks, Bulges, Movement
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Stone Foundation Defects listed, described & explained along with inspection and diagnosis suggestions for stone walls or buildings.

Foundation defects of occurrence: things that happen that cause damage to building foundation walls or slabs

Photographs of foundation damage patterns and types

Our site offers impartial, unbiased advice without conflicts of interest. We will block advertisements which we discover or readers inform us are associated with bad business practices, false-advertising, or junk science. Our contact info is at inspect-ny.com/appointment.htm.

Here we discuss Stone Foundations & Walls: How to Recognize & Diagnose Stone Foundation Cracks, Bulges, Movement, or other Stone Wall Damage such as damage due to impact, settlement, frost or water damage, and other causes. Types of foundation cracks, crack patterns, differences in the meaning of cracks in different foundation materials, site conditions, building history, and other evidence of building movement and damage are described to assist in recognizing foundation defects and to help the inspector separate cosmetic or low-risk conditions from those likely to be important and potentially costly to repair. Also see this close companion article: FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION which discusses in detail the process of evaluating foundation cracks and signs of foundation damage by examining the crack size, shape, pattern, and location. © Copyright 2008 Daniel Friedman, All Rights Reserved. Information Accuracy & Bias Pledge is at below-left. Use links at the left of each page to navigate this document or to view other topics at this website. Green links show where you are in our document or website.

Examples of structural & other failures in Stone Foundation Walls & Stone Foundations

Photograph of a bulged leaning stone wall

The photograph shows a bulged and leaning stone foundation on an 1885 building in Rhinebeck NY. We suspect that a combination of steep bank, nearby highway, lack of adequate footings, and failure to control roof spillage along the foundation wall are the forces behind this troublesome damage. Of these, the roof spillage by the foundation was probably the prime source of damage.

Stone foundation walls on pre-1900 buildings are often quite thick, up to four feet at their base. In their original design these walls tolerated water in the outside soils by permitting it to seep through the wall and often to drain away through a dirt floor or even a through-wall drain in a low corner. Such dry-laid structural stone foundation walls rarely fail by leaning but are often found bulged or damaged by water, frost, vehicle traffic, or by modification by the building owner.

Stone walls, like other masonry walls, are often damaged by water and frost, especially where roof spillage splashes close to the foundation wall. In this photograph we see a combination of stone and brick foundation wall. Brick was often laid in finish courses atop a stone foundation wall. In other buildings the entire wall may be stone except that bricks may have been used at windows and doors (to give a nicer square opening). In this photo the mortar, probably a soft lime and sand mix, has washed out of stones at this inside corner of the building foundation where the corner is below a roof valley - a source of frequent spillage during rain and melting snow.

This photograph shows the futility of trying to keep out water by applying mortar to the inside of an old stone wall. Near the entering water pipe we see ice forming in this wet basement, perhaps because lots of surface and subsurface runoff are being caught and directed towards the foundation wall by the trench dug to install the new water line. But so much of this wall is wet over so much of its height that we can be sure that roof spillage and surface water are entering the building.

Beware of old dry-laid stone foundation walls which were later made "water proof" by mortar or by casting an inside thin veneer of concrete against the stone. People often point the gaps between the stones in such a wall as an attempt to reduce water entry or to try to keep out vermin. If this change is made without also taking steps outside to keep water away from the building, frost and water damage to the wall may occur.

Some common stone foundation wall or stone structural wall defects to be observed and reported include:

This sketch of the components of a preserved stone foundation with a solid masonry exterior wall is courtesy of Carson Dunlop.

Dislocations and loose stones, commonly at building walls and corners above grade where exposed to splashing roof runoff.
Bulges : due to frost, water, vehicle loading if vehicles are driven close to walls
Cracks (if mortared): settlement, vehicle driving close to walls
Interruptions and loss of integrity such as where stones have been removed from a structural wall to add a door or to provide access for mechanicals. Unless appropriate measaures are taken, such as adding a lintel or other support, removing stones from a structural stone wall may destroy the integrity of these walls. In original construction stones were placed in an interlocking and overlapped pattern from course to course. Removing a section of wall may result in future wall movement unless other steps are taken to stabilize the modified section.

The Carson Dunlop sketch belowshows typical construction of a stone foundation atop which is placed a wood frame structure. We continue with our list of inspection points for stone foundations.

Water leakage is very common with all stone walls, especially dry-laid stones which were placed without use of mortar. In original use such walls were often expected to be leaky and provision was made for water passing through the wall to continue across a sloped (dirt) floor and out of the basement or crawl space.
Building modernization effects on homes built on stone foundations:

As such older buildings have been converted to modern use often owners add insulation, storm windows, siding, caulking, central heating, and a basement or crawl space floor slab.

These improvements make for significant changes in how the building works and how water and moisture can (or cannot) escape, and can lead to severe water entry problems and related problems of insect damage, rot, and indoor mold in the building.

Use links at the left of each page to navigate this document or to view other topics at this website. Green links show where you are in our document or website.

FOUNDATION DIAGNOSIS
EARTHQUAKE DAMAGED FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION TYPES
FOUNDATION INSPECTION METHODS
FAILURES by FOUNDATION TYPE & MATERIAL
  Block Foundation & Wall Defects
  Brick Foundation & Wall Defects
  Brick Thermal Expansion Cracking
  Concrete Poured Foundation Wall & Slab Defects
  Concrete Pre-cast Foundation Defects
  Stone Foundation Defects
  Wood Foundation Defects
FAILURES by FOUNDATION MOVEMENT TYPE
  BULGED vs. LEANING FOUNDATIONS
  COMBINATIONS OF FOUNDATION MOVEMENT
    Bulge & step cracks
    Earthquake Damage to Foundations
    Flood Damage to Foundations
    Foundation Movement During Collapse
    Other Foundation Step cracks
  HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT IN FOUNDATIONS
    Bulging, Leaning & Sliding Wall
    Horizontal Foundation Creep
    Horizontal Movement & step cracks in brick
    Impact Damage to Foundations
    Thermal Expansion Cracking in Brick
  VERTICAL MOVEMENT IN FOUNDATIONS
    Diagonal Cracks in Concrete Foundations
    Diagonal Step Cracking in Masonry
    Differential vs. Uniform Settlement Cracks
    Leaning or Tipping Buildings
    Uniform Width vs. Tapered Foundation Cracks
    Vertical Cracks
FLOOD DAMAGE TO FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATION DEFECTS OF OMISSION
FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION
  DIAGONAL FOUNDATION CRACKS
  HORIZONTAL FOUNDATION CRACKS
  SHRINKAGE vs EXPANSION vs SETTLEMENT
  Sinkholes & Building Damage
  VERTICAL FOUNDATION CRACKS
FOUNDATION BULGE or LEAN MEASUREMENTS
FOUNDATION DAMAGE SEVERITY
FOUNDATION DAMAGE REPORTS
FOUNDATION INSPECTION STANDARDS
FOUNDATION MOVEMENT ACTIVE vs. STATIC
FOUNDATION REPAIR METHODS
  Bulged foundation Repairs
  Crack Repair Methods
  Horizontal Movement Repairs
  Shrinkage Crack Repairs
  Vertical Movement Repairs
SITE FACTORS AFFECTING FOUNDATIONS
SLAB CRACK EVALUATION
  Control Joint Cracks in Concrete
  Freezing & Water Damage
  Frost Heave/Expansive Soil Cracks in Slabs
  Seal Cracks by Polyurethane Foam Injection
  Seal Cracks in Concrete, How To
  Settlement Cracks in Slabs
  Settlement Cracks vs. Frost Heaves
  Settlement Cracks vs. Shrinkage Cracks
  Shrinkage Cracks in Slabs
  Shrinkage Cracks Along Foundation Walls
  Standards for Repair of Cracks in Floors
WATER ENTRY in BUILDINGS
  SUMP PUMPS GUIDE
ADDITIONAL READING

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FOUNDATION DIAGNOSIS Chapter Index

Use links just below or at the left of each page to navigate this document or to view other topics at this website. Green links show where you are in our document or website.

FOUNDATION DIAGNOSIS - how to inspect and diagnose foundation problems, in-depth diagnosis, and evaluation of all types of structural and non-structural cracks in residential foundations [Brick, Concrete, Masonry Block, Stone]
EARTHQUAKE DAMAGED FOUNDATIONS - examples of earthquake-damaged building foundations
FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION TYPES - identify different foundation types, construction materials, effects of sequence of construction
FOUNDATION INSPECTION METHODS - what to look for when inspecting any building foundation
FAILURES by FOUNDATION TYPE & MATERIAL- unique failure characteristics of each foundation material
  Block Foundation & Wall Defects
  Brick Foundation & Wall Defects
  Brick Thermal Expansion Cracking
  Concrete Poured Foundation Wall & Slab Defects
  Concrete Pre-cast Foundation Defects
  Stone Foundation Defects
  Wood Foundation Defects
FAILURES by FOUNDATION MOVEMENT TYPE -recognize & diagnose types of foundation damage by the nature of foundation movement
  BULGED vs. LEANING FOUNDATIONS - distinction of foundation bulging from foundation leaning has important implications for stability
  COMBINATIONS OF FOUNDATION MOVEMENT - the real world of foundation cracks and movement: often more than one force is at work
    Bulge & step cracks
    Earthquake Damage to Foundations
    Flood Damage to Foundations
    Foundation Movement During Collapse
    Other Foundation Step cracks
  HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT IN FOUNDATIONS - detection, causes, effects, evaluation of horizontal or lateral foundation movement; hillsides
    Bulging, Leaning & Sliding Wall
    Horizontal Foundation Creep
    Horizontal Movement & step cracks in brick
    Impact Damage to Foundations
    Thermal Expansion Cracking in Brick
  VERTICAL MOVEMENT IN FOUNDATIONS - detection, causes, effects, evaluation of vertical foundation movement, differential settlement
    Diagonal Cracks in Concrete Foundations
    Diagonal Step Cracking in Masonry
    Differential vs. Uniform Settlement Cracks
    Leaning or Tipping Buildings
    Uniform Width vs. Tapered Foundation Cracks
    Vertical Cracks
FLOOD DAMAGE TO FOUNDATIONS - examples of flood damaged foundations, flood damage case analysis: were these cracks due to flooding?
FOUNDATION DEFECTS OF OMISSION - recognize things that were left out, like footings, reinforcement, soil compaction, during foundation construction
FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION- recognize & diagnose types of foundation cracks, movement, damage, by the size, shape, location, pattern of cracks
  DIAGONAL FOUNDATION CRACKS - causes and significance of diagonal foundation cracks, varies by foundation type & material
  HORIZONTAL FOUNDATION CRACKS - causes and significance of horizontal foundation cracks, varies by foundation type & material
  SHRINKAGE vs EXPANSION vs SETTLEMENT - which foundation materials shrink, which expand, & their characteristic crack patterns
  Sinkholes & Building Damage - sinkhole recognition, significance, cause, underlying geology, areas where sinkholes are worst
  VERTICAL FOUNDATION CRACKS - - causes and significance of vertical foundation cracks, varies by foundation type & material
FOUNDATION BULGE or LEAN MEASUREMENTS - procedure for documenting the amount of lean or bulge in a foundation or other building wall
FOUNDATION DAMAGE SEVERITY - rules of thumb for deciding how much foundation movement requires further action
FOUNDATION DAMAGE REPORTS - how to report foundation inspection results and damage
FOUNDATION INSPECTION STANDARDS - definition of scope of what a foundation inspector
FOUNDATION MOVEMENT ACTIVE vs. STATIC - determine if foundation movement was a one-time event or an ongoing problem
FOUNDATION REPAIR METHODS - catalog of methods used to repair damaged foundations and masonry building walls
  Bulged foundation Repairs
  Crack Repair Methods
  Horizontal Movement Repairs
  Shrinkage Crack Repairs
  Vertical Movement Repairs
SITE FACTORS AFFECTING FOUNDATIONS - drainage, rock, soil compaction, slope or grading, bedrock, sloping bedrock, proximity to roads
SLAB CRACK EVALUATION - recognize and diagnose different types of slab or concrete floor cracks and movement
  Control Joint Cracks in Concrete - what are control joints, why they are needed, what happens when they're omitted; are they structural?
  Freezing & Water Damage - recognize frost and water damage to concrete slabs, distinguish from other crack types
  Frost Heave/Expansive Soil Cracks in Slabs - distinguish between frost damage and expansive clay soil damage to slabs
  Seal Cracks by Polyurethane Foam Injection - stop basement or crawl space leakage
  Seal Cracks in Concrete, How To - products and methods used to seal or repair cracks in poured concrete walls, foundations, floors, & slabs.
  Settlement Cracks in Slabs - recognize slab settlement, assess risk, assess potential impact on structure
  Settlement Cracks vs. Frost Heaves - how to tell the difference between frost heaves and foundation settlement; does it matter?
  Settlement Cracks vs. Shrinkage Cracks - critical identification of shrinkage cracks (non-structural) compared with foundation movement
  Shrinkage Cracks in Slabs - causes, prevention, assessment of concrete slab shrinkage cracks
  Shrinkage Cracks Along Foundation Walls - why do we see a gap between a poured concrete slab and its abutting foundation wall?
  Standards for Repair of Cracks in Floors - when does a floor or slab crack need to be repaired? why?
WATER ENTRY in BUILDINGS
  SUMP PUMPS GUIDE - how a sump pump can avoid foundation damage and reduce building water entry
ADDITIONAL READING

Technical Content Reviewers for Foundation Crack and Movement Damage Evaluation, Diagnosis, & Reporting

Daniel Friedman - ASHI (1986-2006) - author of this website and article, building failures researcher.
Thanks to Alan Carson and Bob Dunlop, Carson Dunlop, Associates, Toronto, for permission to use illustrations from their publication, The Illustrated Home which illustrates construction details and building components. Carson Dunlop provides home inspection education, publications, report writing materials, and home inspection services. Alan Carson is a past president of ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors.
"Concrete Slab Finishes and the Use of the F-number System", Matthew Stuart, P.E., S.E., F.ASCE, online course at www.pdhonline.org/courses/s130/s130.htm
Sal Alfano - Editor, Journal of Light Construction*
Thanks to Alan Carson, Carson Dunlop, Associates, Toronto, for technical critique and some of the foundation inspection photographs cited in these articles
Terry Carson - ASHI
Mark Cramer - ASHI
JD Grewell, ASHI
Duncan Hannay - ASHI, P.E. *
Bob Klewitz, M.S.C.E., P.E. - ASHI
Ken Kruger, P.E., AIA - ASHI
Aaron Kuertz aaronk@appliedtechnologies.com, with Applied Technologies regarding polyurethane foam sealant as other foundation crack repair product - 05/30/2007
Bob Peterson, Magnum Piering - 800-771-7437 - FL*
Arlene Puentes, ASHI, October Home Inspections - (845) 216-7833 - Kingston NY
Greg Robi, Magnum Piering - 800-822-7437 - National*
Dave Rathbun, P.E. - Geotech Engineering - 904-622-2424 FL*
Ed Seaquist, P.E., SIE Assoc. - 301-269-1450 - National
Dave Wickersheimer, P.E. R.A. - IL*
*These reviewers have not returned comment 6/95

Use links at the left of each page to navigate this document or to view other topics at this website. Green links show where you are in our document or website.

More Information on Building Diagnostic Inspections and Repairs

FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION discusses detail the process of evaluating foundation cracks and signs of foundation damage by examining the crack size, shape, pattern, and location.
FOUNDATION BULGE or LEAN MEASUREMENTS explains a simple method for determining how much bulge or lean is present in a foundation or wall,
FOUNDATION MOVEMENT ACTIVE vs. STATIC helps determine if the foundation movement is ongoing,
FOUNDATION DAMAGE SEVERITY discusses how we decide the severity of foundation damage and the urgency of further action.
FAILURES by FOUNDATION TYPE & MATERIAL describes the types of foundation damage, cracks, leaks, or other defects associated with each type of foundation material (concrete, brick, stone, concrete block, etc.).

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